Using the stories of Ukrainian nurses who relocated to Germany as an example, this article illustrates the pathway to German healthcare, the differences between the work of a nurse in Ukraine and Germany, and their outlook regarding the prospects. Their return is crucial for Ukraine’s post-war recovery and reconstruction. However, in addition to safety considerations, Ukrainian nurses cite working conditions as a decisive factor for their relocation and plans to stay abroad. Significantly better working conditions motivate them to go through the difficult path of qualification recognition and learning a new language. Their experiences provide a valuable insight for Ukrainian society and national policies on how to stop brain drain from the Ukrainian healthcare and encourage those who moved abroad to return. By comparing responsibilities, pay, union role, and communication in the workplace, we will see the differences between nursing work in Ukraine and in Germany and things that can be improved immediately.
The migration of Ukrainian doctors, nurses, and caregivers to Western countries is not a new trend. The Russian full-scale invasion into Ukraine in 2022 only exacerbated it, with the number of Ukrainian nurses abroad growing. Over the past few years, the Ukrainian medical system has undergone numerous changes. 2017 marked the launch of the reform of the subsidy system inherited from the USSR, which was largely focused on maintaining inpatient facilities. The new system is based on state funding of specific services provided and on salaries received by doctors and nurses. This process also included the closure and merging of many hospitals, which led to a loss of personnel. The 2017 healthcare reform improved certain aspects of the old system, consolidating the dispersed funding, making the distribution of funds more transparent, and providing some flexibility on local levels. However, the reform failed to address the most important issue, which is insufficient financing. For decades, the Ukrainian medical system received funding that hardly reached 5% of the GDP.
The lack of state funding is not the only problem, however grave it may be. Salaries are often not paid from the resources allocated to hospitals because, following the decentralization of funding, the distribution of funds is managed by hospital administrations, which do not prioritize salaries. In addition, the National Health Service of Ukraine (NHSU) itself may withdraw the funds that have previously been provided. For instance, the Accounting Chamber reported that over UAH 11 million provided for “Ensuring the preservation of human resources for providing medical aid” was withdrawn within one grant, which accounted for 58% of the budget for this area. That is, funds that were already in the system and could have been used for medical workers’ needs were instead withdrawn as ‘overpaid.’
Simultaneously, particularly during the recent years of crisis, there has been a major trend for relocation of medical staff abroad. Medical activists share that an acute shortage of personnel already leads to postponement of scheduled surgeries, even in time-sensitive sectors such as cancer treatment. Meanwhile, Ukraine has approved a mechanism for evacuation of severely ill Ukrainians abroad for treatment. Many of them are being treated in Germany.
The shortage of personnel also affects the military. The study by the Pryncyp NGO has found that the pathway for injured military servants to access state medical care in the system is very complicated. Major factors contributing to these difficulties include the attitude of medical staff and the additional burden of caregiving placed on family members, who are eventually forced to leave their paid employment due to a lack of time.
This article aims to help better understand the experiences of Ukrainian nurses who moved to Germany before and after the start of russia’s full-scale war against Ukraine. What was their experience like working in Ukraine? How did it differ from their work in Germany? What steps did they take to begin working as nurses in Germany? What role do job responsibilities, pay, union effectiveness, and workplace communication play in their decision to stay in Germany, among other factors? What are the lessons learned that could be helpful for the Ukrainian medical system?
Ukrainian Nurses in Germany — 6 Stories
Among the six stories featured in this article, no two are the same, but they share similar features. The typical Ukrainian nurse in Germany is a woman who worked in Ukraine for a low salary, shouldering the usual additional workload at home in the form of domestic chores and caregiving, and then moved abroad due to the russian invasion and/or the resulting economic collapse. There, she had to learn the language, get integrated into society, and overcome bureaucratic hurdles to return to her profession. Another challenge is related to the consequences of the ‘right turn’ in Germany, as demonstrated by the story of one of our heroines. We will look at their personal stories, starting with Maria, the leader of nurse activism in Germany. Among other things, we will explore what their lives were like in Ukraine, what made them leave, how they are integrating into society, and whether they have plans to return to Ukraine.
Maria — Luhansk/Kharkiv/Hesse
Maria is a former internally displaced person (IDP), now a refugee in Germany, who helps other nurses get their diplomas recognized. Maria has created an online community where nurses can share their stories. It also includes informational resources designed to help other nurses and caregivers navigate the path to getting their diplomas officially recognized. In addition to her work and activism, she is raising a son and planning for him to study in Germany. Maria often shares videos and writes posts about her experiences at work, offering an inside look at nursing.
Maria joined the medical field relatively recently. By education, she is an economist with eight years of work experience. Maria became a nurse by chance, due to a friend who went to study nursing and needed support for the exam. Originally from Luhansk, Maria had significant experience adapting to new places even before moving to Germany:
“We did not leave all at once. First, it was my mom and my son because I had to work, and my mom is retired. The child was 4 years old. He spent less time at home than away, often two or three times less. My child has transferred schools three times.”
She also shared that evacuating from Kharkiv in 2022 was more difficult than evacuating from Luhansk back in the day.
“We left [Luhansk] before the railway connection stopped functioning. That is, my mom and my son left after the first air raid, at the end of June, and I followed at the end of July. There was no issue buying the tickets… But still, it was somehow calmer, not at all like at the railway station in Kharkiv… because everyone was leaving then. Kharkiv saw about two-thirds of its residents relocating.”
Now, Maria says that her time as an IDP in Ukraine somewhat prepared her for integration in Germany.
“Nobody was accommodating you, your concerns about housing, education, and healthcare were your own. That is, you had to handle it, however you could. You had to. I guess, you still have to… To be honest, I still get messages now that professionals are leaving Ukraine that I’m doing a good job with all this stuff here. And I told one person that, while I lived in Ukraine, I had to survive, and I had no opportunity to do anything beyond survival. I didn’t have the energy.”
In Germany, thanks to a program where German families offer housing to refugees, Maria found shelter for herself, her son, and her mother, and later secured a separate apartment. She currently works at a German hospital and has no plans to return to Ukraine.
Liudmyla (name changed) — Kharkiv/Berlin
Liudmyla is a nurse from Kharkiv with sixteen years of experience who had been living in Germany even before the full-scale war began. She planned her move herself and began the process of getting her diploma recognized and seeking employment while still in Ukraine. It took a long time because it coincided with the outbreak of the pandemic in 2020. Liudmyla was forced to do a lot of things on her own, including tasks that were supposed to be handled by the agency for the employment of Ukrainian nurses in Germany. She learned the language independently and went through the entire bureaucratic process. A month before the full-scale war, she started working at one of the clinics in Berlin. There is more to come — she would like to get additional education in the fields of pedagogy or management.
She encounters wounded Ukrainian soldiers at the clinic where she currently works.
“I have seen very difficult cases of [Ukrainian] soldiers here. A lot of them are getting treatment here, I saw them… in our [department] too… When I was leaving, I never thought I would not go back home for two and a half years, and that there would be a [full-scale] war.”
Although Liudmyla is not planning to return to Ukraine, she would like to have an opportunity to visit home.
“I didn’t leave because of the war; I left a little earlier. This process took several years. From 2015 to 2020 or even longer, I kept thinking and hesitating. I would just like to go home and see my family, see my house in one piece.”
Olena — Kharkiv/Poltava/Berlin
Olena is a nurse from Kharkiv as well. Her path to Germany was rather turbulent and was primarily due to the Russian full-scale invasion and heavy shelling of Kharkiv.
“When the war started, we stayed in Kharkiv for 10 days, and then we went to Poltava. That city offered more peace and quiet, so we stayed there. We didn’t have anyone [there]; we just left [Kharkiv] because it was unbearable: Kharkiv is very close to the border. My house is probably 60 or 70 kilometers from the border with Russia. We were sitting in the basement, and everything was flying and exploding overhead. I stopped eating and lost weight. I said, ‘I can’t do this anymore, let’s go somewhere.’ We went to Poltava and stayed there for six months.”
However, finding employment in Poltava proved difficult. Olena also faced age discrimination and competition with other IDPs and locals. Without a home of their own and with no relatives in the city, she and her husband decided to leave the country. They settled in Berlin thanks to a friend who helped them find their own place to live. Olena’s mother remained in Kharkiv — according to her, she had gotten used to the shelling and was unwilling to leave her pets behind. Olena has an adult son who lives and works in Poland. She is currently studying German, which is a challenging task. She also plans to have her diploma recognized and work in healthcare because she loves her profession. But her greatest desire would be to return home.
Olena worked various jobs in Ukraine. She started as a nurse tech, then worked in the burn unit of a hospital for three years, at the medical center of the science academy, and even at a laser hair removal salon. Furthermore, she has the qualification of a podiatrist and a master’s degree in rehabilitation, which is of particular value in Ukraine due to the shortage of specialists. Her former colleagues even called her to return and work specifically in rehabilitation.
Olena — Kryvyi Rih/Magdeburg
Like Liudmyla, Olena, a nurse from Kryvyi Rih, considers herself a migrant rather than a refugee. She relocated after the beginning of the full-scale war due to the difficult job situation. Olena has worked as a nurse since 2000: first at the eye microsurgery department, later at the pediatric ward, and after her maternity leave, as a dental assistant, a school nurse, and eventually at a family outpatient clinic.
At the beginning of the war in 2014, she left healthcare and started working as a seamstress. At first, she worked pro bono, sewing uniforms for the military, and later found a paid job. Since 2022, Olena has been doing volunteer work as a seamstress again, but when blackouts started, work became difficult. This job paid better than nursing.
“Yes, it is a less skilled job. This is a job that carries no, one might say, moral or physical responsibility to people, but pays much better than the work of medical professionals. In 2014, when I quit my job, my monthly paycheck was 3-4 thousand hryvnias [approximately 200-250 EUR] … I worked overtime, holding 1.5 full-time positions, from morning to evening, from eight to six, including Saturdays. I had such a low salary and had only one day off. When I started working as a seamstress, I earned almost twice as much… in a shorter period of time, because Saturday and Sunday were my days off, and I had an eight-hour workday.”
After moving to Germany, Olena wanted to work immediately, without relying on social benefits. However, she faced discrimination while looking for a job:
“There are people who say that Ukraine is not a very good country, and Ukrainians are not welcome. I had this experience when I was looking for a job. While already working at a cleaning company, I got an internship, but I wasn’t hired specifically because I was Ukrainian. The team in which I was supposed to work said that Ukraine is something bad, and they didn’t want Ukrainians to work among them.”
Interestingly, this incident occurred in the federal land of Saxony, which is one of the leaders of right-wing sentiment in Germany. It is an area where right-wing and anti-Ukrainian party Alternative for Germany (AfD) has been successful at the elections for quite a while. This party normalizes anti-migrant attitudes in German society, and other parties, traditionally not as radical, pick up on this agenda and spread the resentment, which also applies to Ukrainian refugees.
Eventually, Olena found a job in Magdeburg, and in September she started working as a caregiver at a local clinic. She also wants to get her diploma recognized. Although her family is in Kryvyi Rih and she is considering returning, for now, Olena wants to gain experience in Germany.
Iryna — Kyiv/Truskavets/Potsdam
Iryna is a nurse from Kyiv who left at the beginning of the full-scale invasion. She worked in a private clinic and was very happy with her job, so her motivation for leaving was anxiety due to the war. First, she went to Truskavets, where she lived off her savings, but when she realized it was very difficult to find a job there, she decided to leave the country.
In Germany, she received help from her two sisters who had relocated a long time ago, one of them a medical worker as well. She and her son settled in the city of Potsdam with a fairly large community of Ukrainian nurses. At first, Iryna worked as a caregiver rather than a nurse — a job that is often even harder than nursing:
“It’s very physically challenging to be in nursing homes. If there is no reform, if nothing changes, I don’t know how things will develop. There is a lack of [staff], and the nurse is tasked with cooking, cleaning, and caregiving. The legal responsibility for all processes lies with the nurse because there is simply no doctor.”
Her employer helped her with learning the language and getting her qualification recognized. Although her adaptation process was successful, it had its difficulties as well.
“I worked full-time and studied to get my diploma recognized at the same time. It was a very difficult period because I had to work eight hours a day, first shift, second shift, and night shift, and at the same time I was supposed to study German… I studied it at night, on the bus, and after my shifts.”
Thereafter, Iryna passed the qualification recognition exam, which consists of a practical and theoretical part. The entire journey took nine months, during which she worked as a caregiver full-time. Currently, Iryna works as a nurse at a clinic and, in addition to her work, helps Ukrainian refugees with interpretation at doctor appointments. Iryna’s son has already started studying web design in Potsdam. At the time of the interview, they were not planning to return.
Khrystyna — Chernivtsi/Potsdam
Khrystyna is a young nurse from Chernivtsi who stayed in Germany spontaneously. She went to visit her sister for three months to help her to take care of the children, and the sister convinced her to try her hand at German medicine. Previously, Khrystyna worked as a nurse in the ICU of a cardiological hospital and had her own massage salon in Chernivtsi. She keeps in touch with colleagues in Ukraine but does not plan to return to Ukrainian healthcare.
Khrystyna said that working as a caregiver, studying German, and getting her diploma recognized at the same time was difficult, though Germany tries to prevent burnout by providing medical leave for rest and recovery.
“A lot of energy gets spent on the patients… And where do I get it? It can be done, but whether I want to do this my whole life is another question… In theory, you can take a medical leave because of burnout… but no one helped me personally. I try not to let it show that I’m burned out, but it’s still obvious that I get tired much faster than before. And sometimes I’m not even in a mood to simply talk to people.”
However, according to Khrystyna, all the difficulties are compensated for by the atmosphere of trust in her team. She shared that she is already considered a part of the team just like everyone else, even though she is still in the process of getting her qualification recognized. For example, she covered for a sick colleague, together with two other nurses. Overall, Khrystyna feels that trust at work gradually makes it easier to cope with burnout. At the time when we spoke, she was planning to get her diploma recognized to get more experience in Germany and learn the language at a higher level, even though she already communicates fluently with colleagues and patients.
All the women have different stories, but some of their impressions are quite similar and illustrate the prominent features of nursing in Ukraine and in Germany.
Nursing Work in Ukraine and in Germany: Key Differences
The nurses’ stories show that there are many differences between the working conditions of medical professionals in Ukraine and in Germany. The heroines shared that there is a big difference in responsibilities, pay, union effectiveness, and security. Analyzing these factors, we can get a better idea why nurses are unhappy with their work in Ukraine, and what should be taken into account to encourage nurses to return.
One big difference is caregiving, which is part of nurses’ responsibilities in Germany. In Ukraine, this work could potentially be relegated to nurse techs, but in reality, things are more complicated. First, nurse techs do not get specific training as caregivers. Second, hospitals often lack proper conditions to provide quality patient care. Caregivers typically provide actual bodily care for patients: washing, skin care, moving the patients, etc. Nurses in Ukraine perform exclusively medical and administrative work, relying on patients’ relatives (usually women) for caregiving, in addition to other chores these family members are likely to have. Often, Ukrainian hospitals do not even have bathrooms for washing the patients. Khrystyna shared that:
“Come summer or winter, I now understand how uncomfortable the patients were in the hospital. Even if family members visited them, there was no way for them to even wash the patient in this unit. We did not have such a bathtub for patients at all. There was one powder room with a toilet and a sink, that’s it. We could not give the family members anything to wash the patient. Every morning, patients had their faces washed, but there is nothing to be said about dental hygiene. As for shaving, this was mostly ‘where did you get this idea,’ we did not respond to this because it was impossible.”
Getting used to these new responsibilities varies from one person to another. Khrystyna and Liudmyla have different opinions.
“Even washing a person’s face was gross to me at first, so to speak, because we don’t do that. But then I realized that close contact with a person helps them quickly enter remission and feel better.” (Khrystyna)
“Maybe if I had been born here, I wouldn’t have chosen this job. I don’t really like washing people or changing the bedpan. For me, these duties are slightly different from tasks like putting in an IV or washing and disinfecting hands… maybe for those who had never worked in Ukraine it’s easier to process it mentally… It is better now, but at first…” (Liudmyla)
Despite the heavy workload and new duties in German hospitals, nurses are willing to adapt because their work pays well, and they can rely on decent working conditions. Maria noted that Germany, too, places major workloads on nurses; however, unlike Ukraine, it has workload standards that help determine the feasible number of patients per nurse. These standards are not always abided, for instance, in a situation when a colleague is on a medical leave, but usually, the employer would try to find a substitute.
There is also a big difference in wages. Salaries are among the biggest problems of Ukrainian nurses. First, they constitute only about UAH 13,000 per month [as of 2022 — an equivalent of EUR 350], and the actual net paycheck is often lower, though they sometimes unofficially work more than declared. Secondly, paychecks in public hospitals are often delayed, sometimes by several months. As of 2024, the paycheck of a nurse in Germany in the first year of her work is between EUR 2400 and EUR 3400 depending on the workplace. Nurses have their own salary scale, which ensures that their pay will never fall below a specified level and that their salary will increase year by year. Liudmyla and Olena have shared their thoughts about nurses’ pay in public hospitals in Ukraine.
“I remember times in Ukraine when I had nothing. At the public hospital, when there was a patient in pain, I could not even give them painkillers because I had none. I would ask a fellow patient from the same ward, ‘Could you please give me a syringe and the medication so I can inject him because he’s in pain?’ At first, I would sometimes buy meds by myself, but on this salary, you cannot really afford to buy medication for everyone… this was when I was just starting out, in mid-December 1999… and the safe with medication was always empty.” (Liudmyla)
“I really love the medical field, and it was very difficult for me to make a decision to leave my job. It was the circumstances: two children, a low salary. I needed more money… And in Ukraine, too, if I had been paid enough, I would have never quit medicine because that was what I wanted, that is what I like, helping people.” (Olena from Kryvyi Rih)
This situation forces many nurses and nurse techs to work two or sometimes three jobs. Khrystyna explained that, similarly to her massage salon, most of her colleagues had additional jobs: helped patients with at-home IV use or worked in labs. Some had part-time jobs that were not related to medicine at all – they worked in restaurants, as cleaners or manicurists, or engaged in network marketing etc. This situation is not new — the same was described by Maryna Nading in her 2019 study of medical labor unions, also based on interviews with healthcare workers.
This reflects the general trend of funding medicine on a residual basis. Ukraine spends much less on medicine than EU countries do1, and even less than the legally mandated minimum of 5% of the GDP. This trend has existed since 1990s and largely remains due to constant crises — but also due to the lack of political will to direct more resources to the healthcare system. Khrystyna shared what it looks like from within, using the example of supply issues:
“We were usually thrilled when we received gloves. They were handed out by humanitarian aid because there was a period when we had ten pairs of gloves per day, and the staff was five people… And there was a time when nurse techs were not allowed to use these gloves, though they are the ones who change diapers if necessary… they gave nurse techs these long yellow gloves, and they were supposed to wash them, disinfect them, and use them for a month. When you tell Germans about this situation with medical supply, how you have no way to wash the patient, sometimes they cannot understand how it works without hygiene. They are trivial things, and yet.”
German labor unions and mobbing
Nurses’ experiences with unions vary quite a bit. German labor unions are more effective than Ukrainian ones. They handle employees’ problems and defend their interests in practice. In Ukraine, membership in labor unions and therefore membership fees are often ‘automatic.’ However, many nurses either have a vague idea of what these unions do or associate them with things like Christmas candy boxes instead of advocating for employees’ rights and lobbying for their interests. This is how Olena from Kryvyi Rih described her experience in Ukraine:
“I was in a labor union. I would get a gift for kids once a year, and this was the entire scope of work of our union. And I did pay the contributions. We had this thing where [it didn’t matter] whether you wanted it or not… I believe it’s an organization that does not do anything in Ukraine except get money from you.”
Liudmyla described the difference between her labor union in Kharkiv and the one at the Berlin clinic:
“I have paid union fees from my paycheck my entire life, but unions in Ukraine and Germany are a bit different. Here, if people get paid, they work for it. They go to rallies and demonstrations to push for a wage increase. Of course, prices are also growing, but so does the pay… Labor unions were there during the strikes. My colleagues said it was once per two or three years when the range of rates goes up… A girl from the union came here, brought brochures, everyone signed the demands, and I said, ‘Can I really sign them? Nothing will happen?’ — ‘Sure, you can.’ In Ukraine, if I had signed something like this, I would be out of work the very next day. That’s the difference.”
Iryna shared that even though she did not have any contact with labor unions in Ukraine, she did not have major problems with her pay due to employment at a private clinic. There was no petty corruption, and the salary was official, meaning all taxes were paid, too. In Germany, although her salary is also official, Iryna is a member of a large German labor union, which fully meets her needs.
In addition, nurses note the well-established communication in Germany, both between doctors and patients, and between colleagues. In Ukraine, it largely depends on the team. The problem of mobbing in medicine is not new; this phenomenon exists in every country. German experts say that mobbing in hospitals is so common due to hierarchical structures, limited resources, and heavy workloads. Ukrainian stories of mobbing are also nothing new, but the difference is that in Ukraine, they are typically linked to the defense of basic rights, due to the absence of effective unions and an inclusive dialogue in the healthcare sector.
What Lessons Can We Learn from Nurses’ Stories?
These stories help us see several broader issues in the Ukrainian medical system. First, this includes terrible working conditions of doctors, and even more so of nurses and caregivers. Based on the recollections of Liudmyla, Olena, and Khrystyna, we see that the situation was difficult back in the 1990s, and the problem persists today.
One of the few ways to have decent working conditions these days is through work at private healthcare, as illustrated by Iryna’s story. Although citizens’ right to state-funded healthcare is enshrined in the Constitution of Ukraine, private healthcare is actually growing due to the long-time neglect of the medical sector by the government. On the other hand, what are essentially attempts to legalize petty corruption through privatization are already starting at the state level. Recently, a list of cases was published, describing when it is legal for patients to pay doctors out of their own pocket. This innovation is supposed to prevent fraud and extortion, but in the situation with nonexistent additional funding, it does nothing but legalize petty corruption at the expense of the patient. This signals a lack of political will to seek resources for medicine from the state.
All of this leads to a low level of trust in the government. Most medical professionals are reluctant to return to the medical sector in Ukraine.
“Here, people can afford things for unemployment benefits that they could not afford in Ukraine while employed, which is, unfortunately, a big issue. Thus, I understand that most Ukrainians will not go back to Ukraine; they will try to find a way to stay here. Unfortunately, our country never cared for its people, while in Germany, people saw things like health insurance, unemployment benefits, because the benefits offered in Ukraine are just ridiculous… If you do honest work in Ukraine, it is very difficult to cover even your basic needs.” (Olena from Kryvyi Rih)
“I worked in a public hospital for sixteen years, earning next to nothing. There were even times when we kept working but did not get paid… I have paid the country what I may had owed.” (Liudmyla)
What should Ukraine do in this situation? In the short term, while the war is still ongoing, there is no way to avoid dependence on external funding. Accordingly, a significant increase in medical funding can hardly be expected. We can start introducing mechanisms which would at least maintain the pay at the current level and support medical workers who fight for their rights at the local level. In the long time, we need to seek more resources for the system with awareness of the issues and to develop a realistic strategy for reducing the dependence on external funding. This will give more political agency to both patients and medical professionals. Currently, they are not the ones who primarily finance the system. Substantial funding of the medical system from taxes will make every patient and healthcare worker a person who finances the system personally. Thus, the authorities will have to view their problems as legitimate and urgent.
In addition, it is important to develop communication channels with doctors, hospital administrations, and government agencies. This can be done by encouraging grassroots labor unions and associations and preventing workplace bullying. Ignoring these issues would only exacerbate the brain drain. Furthermore, it would be helpful to establish caregiving professions, provide relevant training and decent working conditions, and encourage graduates to stay in this profession.
Finally, the Ukrainian government should rethink its policy concerning the diaspora and human resources available abroad, while there are some Ukrainians who are unsure whether to stay abroad or not. They include people like Olena from Kharkiv, who are already rehabilitation experts and would be an important asset to Ukraine. At the same time, EU countries, too, face a major shortage of personnel in the care sector. For instance, a shortage of at least 280,000 workers is forecast in Germany by 2049. There is already an expectation that Ukrainians will be able to improve this situation. Specialized media outlets in Germany published articles about this back in 2022. However, the path towards this is far from easy: in addition to learning the language, Ukrainian nurses also have to go through the process of getting their qualification recognized. Although working conditions of nurses in Germany are difficult, they are still a vast improvement compared to similar jobs in Ukraine. Therefore, it is important to have a clear idea how to encourage specific groups to return to Ukraine, especially medical professionals, who are essential both during the war and for the country’s post-war reconstruction and recovery. The most crucial thing is to provide proper working conditions — fair pay, the possibility of a dialogue between the workers and management structures, and a respectful attitude to medical professionals. This will create a worthy alternative to working abroad.
- On average, EU countries spend 10.9% of their GDP on healthcare; in Ukraine, the 2024 figure was under 3%. ↩︎
The author of the text has not reviewed the translation.
The views of the authors do not necessarily reflect the position of the members of the organisation.